Greenhouse thrips - Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis
By N A Martin (2017 revised 2018)
Classification
Arthropoda
Insecta
Thysanoptera
Thripidae
Panchaetothripinae
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouche, 1833)
Common names
Greenhouse thrips, Black tea thrips, Glasshouse thrips
Synonyms
Thrips haemorrhoidalis Bouche, 1833
Heliothrips adonidum Haliday, 1836
Heliothrips semiaureus Girault, 1928
Heliothrips abdominalis Reuter, 1891
Heliothrips angustior Priesner, 1923
Heliothrips ceylonicus Schultz 1913
Dinurothrips rufiventris Girault, 1929
Taxonomic notes
Greenhouse thrips, Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouche, 1833) is one of four species of the subfamily Panchaetothripinae in New Zealand. The other three species are Palm thrips, Parthenothrips dracaenae (Heeger, 1854), Banana silvering thrips, Hercinothrips bicinctus (Bagnal, 1919) and an endemic species, Hangehange thrips, Sigmothrips aotearoana Ward, 1970. This subfamily is distinguished from other Thripidae by the dorsal surface of the head and prothorax being covered in reticulate sculpture. The maxillary palp is two segmented and the forewing has the first vein more or less fused to the costa. Another distinguishing feature of the four species in New Zealand is that they feed on mature or almost mature plant leaves.
This species is called the Greenhouse thrips because it was first discovered in a German greenhouse, and it was frequently found in European greenhouses.
Biostatus and distribution
This adventive species of thrips is widespread in the tropics and subtropics and lives on mature plant leaves. It was first found in New Zealand on rose and Virburnum leaves in 1930 by W. Cottier. In New Zealand it occurs throughout the North Island and the north of the South Island. In colder areas it may be restricted to pot plants and greenhouses. It is mainly found on adventive plants including crops and garden plants. It also occurs on native plants in native habitats.
Conservation status: Widespread in the North Island and present in the North of the South Island; on native and adventive plants in parks, gardens and native habitats. It may be regarded as a pest on some plants.
Life stages and annual cycle
The Greenhouse thrips appears to breed all year outdoors in Auckland and they can also breed all year on indoor plants. They live mainly on the mature leaves of their host plants as do the other three species of the subfamily Panchaetothripinae found in New Zealand. Males are rare in New Zealand so the species is mainly parthenogenetic in this country. Colonies often start on leaves in sheltered places with higher humidity. They sometime start by the moulted skin of and insect.
Adults
Adults like the other active stages of Greenhouse thrips are relatively long and thin. The body is black and the dorsal surface of the head and prothorax is strongly sculptured and reticulate. The three pairs of legs are white. The head has two antennae, two compound eyes and on the underside the mouth cone contains a pair of short maxillary stylets and a single stout mandible. The two pairs of wings when not used for flying are held over the abdomen. The narrow forewings have prominent white bases while the rest is pale brown. The tip of the abdomen contains an ovipositor for inserting eggs into leaves. Males are occasionally produced, but females usually lay eggs without mating.
Eggs and Larvae
Eggs are laid in either the upper or underside of the leaf depending on the plants species. A thin larva hatches from the egg. It is the shape of a tiny white wingless adult. Like the adult it has three pairs of legs, a pair of antennae and the same structures for feeding. There are two larval stages and two non-feeding stages, a prepupa and a pupa. The juvenile thrips go to the next stage by moulting. This involves the dorsal skin splitting and the next stage pulling itself out of the old skin. The second larva looks like the first larva. larva and may be yellow-green or grey coloured. The last two segments of the abdomen form a brownish cone with setae (hairs) around the tip of the anus. These setae are about the length of the terminal segment and help hold the faecal droplet. The droplet sometime runs over the larva’s body covering it with dark faecal matter.
Prepupa and Pupa
The first non-feeding stage, the prepupa, differs in appearance from the larva by having short wing buds. The next stage, the pupa, has longer wing buds and the antennae are folded back over the head. The prepupa and pupa live on leaves with the larvae.
Feeding and plant damage
Greenhouse thrips feed on mature leaves rather than young leaves. Larvae and adults use the stylets in their mouth cone to feed. They puncture plant cells with their single mandible and suck up the plant cell contents with their maxillary stylets. Their feeding kills the surface cells of the leaves creating distinctive pale areas of dead cells. The larvae carry a dark faecal droplet at the tip of the abdomen, that may run over the body or be flicked away at intervals.
Recognition
Greenhouse thrips are found on mature or almost mature leaves of host plants with typical thrips feeding damage. With the aid of a strong magnifying glass, they can be distinguished from the other three species in the subfamily Panchaetothripinae. The dorsal surface the head and prothorax of adults of the New Zealand species in this subfamily is strongly sculptured and reticulate.
Adult Greenhouse thrips body is black with white legs and its narrow wings have a white basal area. The wings of the other three species have black and white bands. The banana silvering thrips, Hercinothrips bicintus, and Hangehange thrips, Sigmothrips aotearoana, have narrow banded wings, and the Palm thrips, Parthenothrips dracaenae has broad banded wings.
If adults are absent, colonies of Greenhouse thrips are easily distinguished from those of the other Panchaetothripinae. The larvae, prepupae and pupae may all be found on host plant leaves and they are a greenish-yellow or grey. The larvae carry a faecal droplet which distinguishes them from Palm thrips, whose larvae, prepupae and pupae are a brilliant white. The larvae of banana silvering thrips, Hercinothrips bicintus, and Hangehange thrips, Sigmothrips aotearoana, also carry dark faecal droplets, but their colonies never have prepupae or pupae on the leaves.
In colonies without adults, prepupae and pupae, the end of the larval abdomen should be checked. This requires a strong magnifying glass or binocular microscope. Banana silvering thrips have no setae around the anus at the tip of the abdomen whereas Hangehange thrips larvae have long setae at the end of a long final segment. The Greenhouse thrips larva has a short wide final segment with short setae.
Colonies of Greenhouse thrips can be recognised by the presence of black pupae of the wasp parasitoid, Thripobius javae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).
Natural enemies
Two parasitoids and two predators of Greenhouse thrips are known in New Zealand.
Parasitoids
The tiny wasps, Megaphragma sp. (Trichogrammitidae) are parasitoids of eggs, while another wasp, the Greenhouse thrips parasite, Thripobius javae (Eulophidae) lives in the larvaes. The female Greenhouse thrips parasite lays eggs in first instar (stage) or early second instar larvae. When the wasp larva is fuly grown it kills the thrips larva and makes a hole in its cuticle (skin). It pupates in the thrips larval skin. The pupa leaves the larva and attaches itself to the leaf surface and turns black. In New Zealand Thripobius javae only lives in greenhouse thrips and its presence on leaves shows that the thrips has been breeding on the plant. In January 2001, Thripobius javae from Italy were released into New Zealand for the control of greenhouse thrips after safety testing.
Predators
Two species of tiny wasp, Spilomena emarginata and Spilomena nozela (Crabronidae), that catch thrips and put them in cells in wood borer beetle tunnels, have been observed catching Greenhouse thrips. Spilomena species are minute, and place paralysed adult and larval thrips in holes of wood-boring insects. They make a cell in the hole, fill a cell with thrips, lay an egg and close the cell. The larva eats the paralyzed thrips. And then spin a cocoon in the cell, in which they pupate. Several females may use the same woodborer burrows.
Scientific Name | Common Name | Classification | Enemy Type | Reliability Index | Biostatus |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Megaphragma sp. | (Wasp) | Hymenoptera: Trichogrammitidae | parasitoid | 7 | adventive |
Thripobius javae (Girault, 1917) | Greenhouse thrips parasite (Wasp) | Hymenoptera: Eulophidae | parasitoid | 10 | adventive |
Spilomena emarginata Vardy, 1987 | (Wasp) | Hymenoptera: Crabronidae | predator | 10 | endemic |
Spilomena nozela Vardy, 1987 | (Wasp) | Hymenoptera: Crabronidae | predator | 10 | native |
Host plants
Greenhouse thrips has a very wide host range. In New Zealand it has been found feeding on more than 165 species of plant from 74 families and include about 60 indigenous species. Amongst its host plants are ferns, sedges, conifers, and broad-leaved trees and shrubs. It mainly feed on mature and over mature leaves, but will also feed on the fruit of some plants.
The adults and larvae may feed on either side of leaves. They feed by inserting their stylets plant cells at or near the surface of the leaf. They suck out the cell contents. Their presence can be recognised by the distinctive appearance of their feeding damage on leaves.
Common Name(s) | Scientific Name | Family | Reliability Index | Biostatus |
---|---|---|---|---|
Shining spleenwort, Huruhuruwhenua, Parenako, Paretao, Pānako, Paranako, Paretao, Urūru whenua | Asplenium oblongifolium Colenso | Aspleniaceae | 10 | endemic |
Climbing hard fern, Thread fern | Blechnum filiforme (A. Cunn.) Ettingshausen | Blechnaceae | 10 | endemic |
Palm fern, Horokio, Kiokio, Korokio, Koropio, Mokimoki, Piupiu, Rautao, Tupari | Blechnum novae-zelandiae T.C. Chambers et P.A. Farrent | Blechnaceae | 10 | endemic |
Tree fern | Dicksonia sp. | Dicksoniaceae | 9 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Giant hypolepis | Hypolepis dicksonionioides (Endl.) Hook. | Dennstaedtiaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Hairy fern | Lastreopsis hispida (Sw.) Tindale | Dryopteridaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Lastreopsis microsora (Endl.) Tindale | Dryopteridaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic | |
Velvet fern | Lastreopsis velutina (A.Rich.) Tindale | Dryopteridaceae | 10 | endemic |
Hounds tongue, Hound's tongue fern, Strap fern, kōwaowao, pāraharaha, kōwaowao, Maratata, Pāraha, pāraharaha, Raumanga | Microsorum pustulatum (G.Forst.) Copel. | Polypodiaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Fragrant fern, Mokimoki, Moki | Microsorum scandens (G. Forst.) Tindale | Polypodiaceae | 9 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Feather fern, Gully fern, Pākau, Pākau roharoha, Pakauroharoha, Piupiu | Pneumatopteris pennigera (G.Forst.) Holttum | Thelypteridaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Coastal brake, Netted brake | Pteris comans G.Forst. | Pteridaceae | 8 | indigenous, non-endemic |
King fern, Horseshoe fern, Potato fern, Mouku, Para, Para reka, Para tawhiti, Uhipara, Uwhipara | Ptisana salicina (Sm.) Murdock | Marattiaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Hard todea, King fern | Todea barbara (L.) T.Moore | Osmundaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Cedar wattle | Acacia elata Benth. | Leguminosae | 10 | naturalised |
Blackwood, Tasmanian blackwood | Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. | Leguminosae | 8 | naturalised |
Sycamore, Mock plane, Scottish maple, Sycamore maple | Acer pseudoplatanus L. | Sapindaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Red maple, Scarlet maple, Soft maple, Swamp maple | Acer rubrum L. | Sapindaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Himalayan maple, Sikkhim maple | Acer sikkimense Miq. | Sapindaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Mākaka, Makamaka | Ackama rosifolia A.Cunn. | Cunoniaceae | 10 | endemic |
Kiwifruit, Kiwi berry | Actinidia arguta (Siebold & Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq. | Actinidiaceae | 9 | cultivated |
Actinidia chinensis Planch. | Actinidiaceae | 8 | naturalised | |
Red horse-chestnut | Aesculus xcarnea Hayne | Sapindaceae | 10 | cultivated |
New Zealand ash, Tapitapi, Tītoki, Tītongi, Tokitoki, Tongitongi, Topitopi | Alectryon excelsus Gaertn. | Sapindaceae | 10 | endemic |
Alder | Alnus sp. | Betulaceae | 7 | unknown |
Alocasia sp. | Araceae | 7 | unknown | |
Shrubby honeysuckle, Horopito, Karapapa, Korotaiko, Pere, Toropapa | Alseuosmia macrophylla A. Cunn. | Alseuosmiaceae | 10 | endemic |
Marsh mallow, White mallow | Althaea officinalis L. | Malvaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Cruel plant, Kapok vine, Moth plant, White bladder flower | Araujia horturum E.Fourn. | Apocynaceae | 6 | naturalised |
Cane apple, Strawberry tree | Arbutus unedo L. | Ericaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Areng palm, Black-fiber palm, sugar palm | Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. | Palmae | 10 | cultivated |
Wineberry, Mako, Makomako | Aristotelia serrata (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) W.R.B.Oliver | Elaeocarpaceae | 10 | endemic |
Brush bloodwood | Baloghia inophylla (G.Forst.) P.S.Green | Euphorbiaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Taraire | Beilschmiedia tarairi (A.Cunn.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Kirk | Lauraceae | 9 | endemic |
Bergenia | Bergenia hybrid | Saxifragaceae | 7 | cultivated |
Camellia | Camellia brevistyla (Hayata) Cohen-Stuart | Theaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Camellia | Camellia grijsii Hance | Theaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Camellia | Camellia sp. | Theaceae | 6 | cultivated |
Carex aff geminata | Cyperaceae | 9 | endemic | |
Natal plum, Amantungulu | Carissa macrocarpa (Eckl.) A. DC. | Apocynaceae | 9 | cultivated |
Hornbeam | Carpinus betulus L. | Betulaceae | 10 | cultivated |
White sapote | Casimiroa edulis La Llave & Lex. | Rutaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Spanish chesnut, Sweet chestnut | Castanea sativa Miller | Fagaceae | 10 | naturalised |
European redbud, Judas tree, Love tree | Cercis siliquastrum L. | Leguminosae | 9 | naturalised |
Chaenomeles x superba (Frahm) Rehder | Rosaceae | 10 | cultivated | |
Chamaedorea pochutlensis Liebm. | Palmae | 10 | cultivated | |
Mexican orange blossom | Choisya ternata Kunth | Rutaceae | 9 | cultivated |
Rock rose | Cistus sp. | Cistaceae | 5 | naturalised |
Citrus | Citrus sp. | Rutaceae | 7 | unknown |
Lilly of the valley tree, Folhado | Clethra arborea W.T.Aiton | Clethraceae | 10 | naturalised |
Kākawariki, Kanono, Kapukiore, Karamū-kueo, Kueo (fruit), Manono, Pāpāuma, Raurēkau, Toherāoa | Coprosma grandifolia Hook.f. | Rubiaceae | 10 | endemic |
Cabbage tree, Giant dracena, Grass palm, Palm lily, Sago palm, Ti, Kāuka, Kiokio, Kōuka, Tī, Tī awe, Ti kōuka, Tī para, Tī pua, Tī rākau, Whanake | Cordyline australis (G.Forst.) Endl. | Asparagaceae | 10 | endemic |
Tree tutu, Pūhou, Tāweku, Tūpākihi, Tutu | Coriaria arborea Linds. | Coriariaceae | 10 | endemic |
Bentham's cornel, Himalayan strawberry tree, Strawberry dogwood | Cornus capitata Wall. | Cornaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Red flowering gum, Scarlet flowering gum | Corymbia ficifolia (F.Muell.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson | Myrtaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Karaka nut, Karaka, Kōpī | Corynocarpus laevigatus J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. | Corynocarpaceae | 10 | endemic |
Hawthorn, Neapolitan medlar, White hawthorn | Crataegus monogyna Jacq. | Rosaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Monbretia, Crocosmia | Crocosmia ×crocosmiiflora (G.Nicholson) N.E.Br. | Iridaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Japanese cedar, Sugi | Cryptomeria japonica (Thunb. ex L.f.) D.Don | Cupressaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Alpine violet, Cyclamen, Persian violet, Sowbread | Cyclamen sp. | Primulaceae | 7 | cultivated |
Cymbidium sp. | Orchidaceae | 7 | cultivated | |
Dovetree, Ghost-tree, Handkerchief tree | Davidia involucrata Baill. | Cornaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Persimon, Chinese persimmon, Date plum, Japanese persimmon, Kaki, Key fig | Diospyros kaki Thunb. | Ebenaceae | 8 | cultivated |
Strawberry snowball tree | Dombeya cacuminum Hochr. | Malvaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Dracophyllum sinclairii Cheeseman | Ericaceae | 9 | endemic | |
Dysoxylum sp. MARC | Meliaceae | 9 | cultivated | |
New Zealand mahogany, Kohe, Kohekohe, Koheriki, Kohepi (flowers), Kohepu (flowers), Māota (flowers) | Dysoxylum spectabile (G.Forst.) Hook.f. | Meliaceae | 10 | endemic |
Hangehange, Hīnau, Pōkākā, Whīnau | Elaeocarpus dentatus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Vahl | Elaeocarpaceae | 10 | endemic |
Hauama, Houama, Whau, Whauama, Whauma | Entelea arborescens R.Br. | Malvaceae | 8 | endemic |
Escallonia | Escallonia sp. | Escalloniaceae | 7 | unknown |
Bangalay, Southern mahogany | Eucalyptus botryoides Sm. | Myrtaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Brown barrel, Cut tail | Eucalyptus fastigata H.Deane & Maiden | Myrtaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Yellow stringybark | Eucalyptus muelleriana A.W.Howitt | Myrtaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Black gum, Swamp gum | Eucalyptus ovata Labill. | Myrtaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Giant gum, Mountain ash, Stringy gum, Swamp gum | Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. | Myrtaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Swamp mahogany | Eucalyptus robusta Sm. | Myrtaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Sydney blue gum | Eucalyptus saligna Sm. | Myrtaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Euphorbia mellifera Aiton | Euphorbiaceae | 10 | naturalised | |
Common beech, European beech | Fagus sylvatica L. | Fagaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Fatsia, Glossy-leaved paper plant, Japanese aralia, Rice paper plant, Yatsude | Fatsia japonica (Thunb.) Decne. & Planch. | Araliaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Forsythia | Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl | Oleaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Fuchsia | Fuchsia ×hybrida Vilm. | Onagraceae | 8 | cultivated |
Tree fuchsia, Hōnā (fruit), Kōhutuhutu, Kōnini (fruit), Kōtukutuku, Māti (fruit), Tākawa (fruit) | Fuchsia excorticata (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) L.f. | Onagraceae | 10 | endemic |
Creeping fuchsia, Trailing fuchsia, Climbing fuchsia | Fuchsia procumbens A.Cunn. | Onagraceae | 10 | endemic |
Silky oak | Grevillea robusta R.Br. | Proteaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Gunnera dentata Kirk | Gunneraceae | 8 | endemic | |
Shrubby haloragis, Toatoa | Haloragis erecta (Banks ex Murray) Oken | Haloragaceae | 10 | endemic |
Red ginger lily | Hedychium greenii W. W. Sm. | Zingiberaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Spanish shawl | Heeria rosea Triana | Anacardiaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Swamp hibiscus | Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. | Malvaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Hibiscus, Rose mallow, Rose of China, Rose of Sharon, Shrub althea | Hibiscus sp. (cultivated) | Malvaceae | 7 | cultivated |
Lacebark, Hohere, Hoihere, Houhere, Houhi, Houhi ongaonga, Houī, Ongaonga, Whauahi, Wheuhi | Hoheria populnea A.Cunn | Malvaceae | 10 | endemic |
Hydrangea, Tea of heaven | Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. subsp. serrata (Thunb.) Makino | Hydrangeaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Hypericum sp, 'cultivated shrub' | Hypericaceae | 7 | cultivated | |
Mistletoe, Small-flowered mistletoe, Pikirangi, Pirinoa, Pirirangi, Pirita | Ileostylus micranthus (Hook.f.) Tiegh. | Loranthaceae | 10 | endemic |
Japanese walnut | Juglans ailantifolia Carrière | Juglandaceae | 8 | naturalised |
Common juniper | Juniperus communis L. | Cupressaceae | 10 | cultivated |
New Zealand honeysuckle, Rewarewa | Knightia excelsa R.Br. | Proteaceae | 9 | endemic |
White tea tree, Kānuka, Kōpuka, Manuea, Mānuka, Mānuka-rauriki, Mārū, Rauiri, Rauwiri | Kunzea ericoides s.l. (A.Rich.) Joy Thomps. | Myrtaceae | 9 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Bay, Laurel, Sweet bay | Laurus nobilis L. | Lauraceae | 10 | naturalised |
Liquid amber, Bilsted, Red gum, Sweet gum | Liquidambar styraciflua L. | Hamamelidaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Tulip poplar, Tulip tree, Whitewood, Yellow poplar | Liriodendron tulipifera L. | Magnoliaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Mangeao, Mangeo, Tangeao, Tangeo | Litsea calicaris (Sol. ex A.Cunn.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Kirk | Lauraceae | 10 | endemic |
New Zealand myrtle, Ramarama | Lophomyrtus bullata Burret | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
Brushbox, Vinegar tree, Brisbane box | Lophostemon confertus (R.Br.) Peter G.Wilson & J.T.Waterh. | Myrtaceae | 8 | cultivated |
Loropetalum sp. "Razzleberries" | Hamamelidaceae | 10 | cultivated | |
Chinese magnolia, Saucer magnolia, Soulange-Boudins magnolia | Magnolia ×soulangeana Soul.-Bod. | Magnoliaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Apple, Crab-apple | Malus ×domestica Borkh. | Rosaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Apple, Crab-apple | Malus sp. | Rosaceae | 7 | unknown |
Crimson bottlebrush, Lemon bottlebrush | Melaleuca citrina (Curtis) Dum.Cours. | Myrtaceae | 8 | cultivated |
Houkūmara, Koheriki, Tākaka, Tātaka, Wharangi, Wharangipiro | Melicope ternata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. | Rutaceae | 10 | endemic |
Puka, Pukanui | Meryta sinclairii Hook. f.) Seem. | Araliaceae | 10 | endemic |
Bartlett's rata | Metrosideros bartlettii J.W.Dawson | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
White rata, Rātā | Metrosideros diffusa (G.Forst.) Sm. | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
New Zealand Christmas tree, Hutukawa, Kahika, Pohutukawa, Pōhutukawa, Rātā | Metrosideros excelsa Sol. ex Gaertn. | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
Clinging rata, Small white rata, Aka, Akatea, Akatorotoro, Koro, Torotoro, Whakapiopio | Metrosideros perforata (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) A.Rich. | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
Large-leaved muehlenbeckia, Pōhuehue, Puka | Muehlenbeckia australis (G.Forst.) Meisn. | Polygonaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Scrub pohuehue, Small-leaved pohuehue, Wire vine, Pōhue, Pōhuehue, Pōpōhue, Tororaro, Waekāhu | Muehlenbeckia complexa (A.Cunn.) Meissn. | Polygonaceae | 10 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Ngaio | Myoporum laetum G.Forst. | Scrophulariaceae | 10 | endemic |
Red mapou, Red matipo, Māpau, Māpou, Mataira, Matipou, Takapou, Tāpau, Tīpau | Myrsine australis (A.Rich.) Allan | Primulaceae | 10 | endemic |
Toro | Myrsine salicina Heward ex Hook.f. | Primulaceae | 10 | endemic |
White maire, Maire, Maire raunui, Maire rauriki | Nestegis lanceolata (Hook.f.) L.A.S.Johnson | Oleaceae | 10 | endemic |
Black gum, Black tupelo, Sour-gum | Nyssa sylvatica Marshall | Nyssaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Black passionfruit, Purple granadilla, Purple passionfruit | Passiflora edulis Sims | Passifloraceae | 10 | naturalised |
Banana passionfruit | Passiflora sp. 'banana passion fruit' | Passifloraceae | 7 | naturalised |
Hanging geranium, Ivy-leaved geranium | Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L'H'er. | Geraniaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Ahikōmau, Hine-kaikōmako, Kahikōmako, Kaikōmako | Pennantia corymbosa J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. | Pennantiaceae | 10 | endemic |
Swamp willow weed, Tūtunāwai | Persicaria decipiens (R.Br.) K.L.Wilson | Polygonaceae | 9 | indigenous, non-endemic |
Coastal flax, Mountain flax, Kōrari-tuauru, Wharariki | Phormium cookianum Le Jolis | Hemerocallidaceae | 10 | endemic |
Flax, Lowland flax, New Zealand flax, Swamp flax, Harakeke, Harareke, Kōrari | Phormium tenax J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. | Hemerocallidaceae | 10 | endemic |
Christmas berry | Photinia sp. | Rosaceae | 6 | unknown |
Japanese pearl flower, Lily-of-the-valley-bush | Pieris japonica (Thunb.) D.Don ex G.Don | Ericaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Monterey pine, Radiata pine | Pinus radiata D. Don | Pinaceae | 10 | naturalised |
London plane | Platanus ×hispanica Mill. ex Münchh. var. 'Acerifolia' | Platanaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Pale-flowered kumarahou, Kūmarahou, Kūmararaunui, Pāpapa | Pomaderris hamiltonii L.B.Moore | Rhamnaceae | 10 | endemic |
Golden tainui, Gum-digger's soap, Kūmarahou, Kūmararaunui, Pāpapa | Pomaderris kumeraho A.Cunn. | Rhamnaceae | 10 | endemic |
Aspen, Cottonwood, Poplar | Populus sp. | Salicaceae | 7 | naturalised |
Cherry laurel | Prunus laurocerasus L. | Rosaceae | 9 | cultivated |
Portugal laurel, Portugese laurel | Prunus lusitanica L. | Rosaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Nectarine, Peach | Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. | Rosaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Cherry | Prunus sp. 'cherry' | Rosaceae | 7 | naturalised |
Prunus sp. 'Red leaf' | Rosaceae | 8 | cultivated | |
Blue Douglas fir, Douglas fir, Oregon pine | Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco | Pinaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Lowland horopito, Lowland pepper tree, Horopito, Puhikawa | Pseudowintera axillaris (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Dandy | Winteraceae | 10 | endemic |
Pin oak, Spanish oak | Quercus palustris Muenchh. | Fagaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Common oak, English oak, Oak, Truffle oak | Quercus robur L. | Fagaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Evergreen buckthorn, Italian buckthorn | Rhamnus alaternus L. | Rhamnaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Azalea, Rhododendron | Rhododendron sp. | Ericaceae | 7 | unknown |
Feather duster palm, Nikau palm, Nīkau | Rhopalostylis sapida H.Wendl. & Drude | Palmae | 10 | endemic |
Rose | Rosa sp. 'cultivated' | Rosaceae | 7 | cultivated |
Dock, Sorrel | Rumex sp. | Polygonaceae | 7 | unknown |
Pussy willow | Salix ×reichardtii A.Kern. | Salicaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Babylon weeping willow, Napoleon's willow, Weeping willow | Salix babylonica L. | Salicaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Black elder, Elder, Elderberry | Sambucus nigra L. | Adoxaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Sassafras tzumu (Hemsl.) Hemsl. | Lauraceae | 10 | cultivated | |
Saurauia subspinosa J. Anthony | Actinidiaceae | 10 | cultivated | |
Seven-finger, Kohi, Kotētē, Patate, Patatē, Patē, Patētē | Schefflera digitata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. | Araliaceae | 10 | endemic |
Californian redwood, Coast redwood | Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. | Cupressaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Caucasian bladdernut | Staphylea colchica Steven | Staphyleaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Tall stewartia | Stewartia monadelpha Siebold & Zucc. | Theaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Swamp maire, Maire tawake, Maire tawhake, Puka, Tuhuhi, Whāwhākou | Syzygium maire (A.Cunn.) Sykes & Garn.-Jones | Myrtaceae | 10 | endemic |
Lilly pilly, Rose apple | Syzygium sp. | Myrtaceae | 6 | unknown |
Tibouchina granulosa (Desr.) Cogn. | Melastomataceae | 10 | cultivated | |
Henry's Lime | Tilia henryana Szyszyl. | Malvaceae | 10 | cultivated |
Gorse | Ulex europaeus L. | Leguminosae | 8 | naturalised |
Scotch elm, Wych elm | Ulmus glabra Mill. | Ulmaceae | 10 | naturalised |
American blueberry, Blueberry, Highbush blueberry, Swamp blueberry | Vaccinium corybosum L. | Ericaceae | 9 | naturalised |
Chinese wood-oil-tree, Tung-oil-tree | Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy Shaw | Euphorbiaceae | 9 | cultivated |
Japanese snowball, Snowball tree | Viburnum plicatum Thunb. | Adoxaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Laurustinus | Viburnum tinus L. | Adoxaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Grape | Vitis vinifera L. | Vitaceae | 10 | naturalised |
Tawhero, Tōwai | Weinmannia silvicola Sol. ex A.Cunn. | Cunoniaceae | 10 | endemic |
Control
Where possible maximise the non-pesticide controls before considering pesticides. Pesticides can kill the natural enemies of Greenhouse thrips and of other potential pests of the plant. They can also harm pollinators.
Non-pesticide options
Plants vary greatly in their genetic susceptibility to Greenhouse thrips. The environment in which they are growing and the way they are managed can also influence the amount of Greenhouse thrips damage experienced by plants. Year-year differences in the summer and autumn weather can also influence the development of Greenhouse thrips populations and the damage done to plants.
A Where possible choose plant species that are not susceptible, or for susceptible species choose cultivars that are less susceptible.
B Greenhouse thrips does well in warm humid weather in summer and autumn.
. Encourage air movement around the plant to lower humidity within the plant.
. Train susceptible plants to keep them open.
. Avoid planting them in shady places.
C Plants stressed by drought and lack of nutrients are more susceptible to greenhouse thrips.
. Keep plants adequately watered and fertilised.
Pesticides
Pesticides can have adverse effects on natural enemies that provide beneficial control of other pests. They can also adversely affect honey bees and other pollinators. They should only be used when there is no other option.
Greenhouse thrips tend to live in protected places on leaves, such as where two leaves are close together, in hollows and where leaves are curled over. When using contact insecticides, it is important to get extremely good coverage of both sides of the leaves if you need to substantially reduce the thrips population.
Note that short-lived insecticides may not kill all the larvae hatching from eggs in the leaves. You may need two applications of short-lived insecticides to achieve long term control.
Home gardeners should consult their local Garden Centre about products suitable and safe to use on their plants. Commercial growers should consult their horticultural products supplier and their professional organisation.
Commercial Growers
If pesticides are required, growers should consult their professional organisation for guidance on pesticides that are allowed and how to minimise the adverse impact on other organisms in the crop. There may be an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for the crop that will provide comprehensive guidelines for dealing with all potential pest and disease problems.
Additional information
Classical biological control and safety testing
Classical biological control of a pest or weed involves the release of a natural enemy, parasite, predator or pathogen into another country where the pest or weed has established itself. Ideally, the natural enemy provides adequate control of the pest or weed, that it no longer a problem. Many such natural enemies have been released into New Zealand, and some have been very successful.
Today, a potential biological control agent must be tested for safety to native and beneficial organisms in New Zealand. An application to release the organism into New Zealand must be made to the Environmental Risk Management Agency (ERMA). ERMA has to assess the risks and benefits from the proposed release. Once permission for release has been granted, the organism is imported into quarantine and tested for freedom form diseases and parasites.
Safety testing for the Greenhouse thrips parasite, Thripobius javae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) focussed on its potential to parasitise the only endemic thrips in the subfamily Panchaetothripinae. All known host of the wasp are in this subfamily. The testing in quarantine compared the ability of the parasitoid to parasitize and successfully develop in greenhouse thrips larvae and Hangehange thrips, Sigmothrips aotearoana, larvae. Fewer Hangehange thrips larvae were parasitised and fewer wasps that pupated in Hangehange thrips became adults. The main problem with these laboratory experiments, was the relatively poor survival rate of the Hangehange thrips.
Reproduction and Parthenogenesis in Thysanoptera
In Thysanoptera, females are diploid (2 sets of chromosomes) and males are haploid (one set of chromosomes). Males are produced from unfertilised eggs. This type of reproduction is called Arrhenotoky. The proportion of males to females in a population is variable. In Palm thrips this appears to be related to temperature. In a warm greenhouse (25-28°C) there are very few males, 6-7 per 100 females, while in a cooler greenhouse (18-20°C) there are more males. Where there are very few or no males, females can reproduce without fertilisation. This is called Thelotoky, form of parthenogenesis. In populations where there are very few males there are probably two types of female present, Arrhenotokous and Thelotokous.
Palm thrips is the first species from the Thysanoptera order that was found to be capable of thelytokous parthenogenetic reproduction. This characteristic is contained in the Latin name of the genus, Parthenothrips.
Information sources
Bernardo U, Viggiani G, Sasso R. 2005. Biological parameters of Thripobius semiluteus Boucˇek (Hym., Eulophidae), a larval endoparasitoid of Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouche´) (Thysan., Thripidae). Journal of Applied Entomology 129 (5): 250-257.
Froud, K. J.; Stevens, P. S.; Cowley, D. R., 1996: A Potential Biological Control Agent for Greenhouse Thrips. Proceedings of the 49th New Zealand Plant Protection Society Conference, Palmerston North, 17-20.
Harris AC. 1994. Sphecidae (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Fauna of New Zealand. 32: 1-106.
Jamieson LE, Froud K, Edwards R, Stevens PS. 2008. Establishment of Thripobius javae (=semiluteus) in New Zealand. New Zealand Plant Protection. 61: 17-23.
Lewis T. 1973. Thrips their biology, ecology and economic importance. Academic Press, London, UK. Pp. 1-349.
Martin NA. 2016. Distinguishing feature of immature stages of Panchaetothripinae (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) known in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 43 (4): 1-8.
Martin NA. 2017. Host plants of Panchaetothripinae (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia: Thripidae) in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 44 (1): 1-8.
Martin NA, Mound LA. 2004. Host plants for some New Zealand thrips (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia). New Zealand Entomologist. 27: 119-123.
Mound LA, Walker AK. 1982. Terebrantia (Insecta: Thysanoptera). Fauna of New Zealand. 1: 1-113.
Plant-SyNZ: Invertebrate herbivore-host plant association database. plant-synz.landcareresearch.co.nz/
Acknowledgements
The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited (Plant & Food Research) for permission to use photographs.
Landcare Research New Zealand Limited (Landcare Research) for permission to use photographs.
Other images
Update history
1 August 2018, NA Martin. Update Host plant list, photos host plants and of adult parasitoid added.
14 September 2017. NA Martin. Life stages text changed to say males are sometimes found in New Zealand.